作者：祝正明
（一）主权的渊源
人生而自由，没有人天生就应该受到他人的束缚；人生而平等，没有人天生就低人一等，天生就应该受到别人的管制。每个人都是自己的主人，每个国家和地区的人民是该国家和地区的主人。人民是国家权力的渊源。民主政治的中心思想就是在国家的政治事务中，由人民当家作主，民众的意志决定一切。政府基于人民的同意而建立，依靠人民的智慧来管理，行为的目的只是为了维护人民的利益。
人类文明发展到今天，人类社会已不再是野蛮社会，政府的权力绝不能再是由少数人取自于暴力，强加在人民头上。如果政府官员以暴力手段将权力强加于民众，强制民众服务于政府官员，民众也同样有权以暴力手段推翻政府，另立新政府，让政府为自己服务。因为，以强权建立的政府，与其说是政府，不如说是一伙强盗。尽管他们可以号称自己代表人民，自己也是人民，给自己的集团戴上人民政权的假面具，但这种伪善的做法并不能掩盖他们的强盗品行。
国家的一切政治权力来自于人民，隶属于人民，服务于人民，因此，只要政府的行为偏离人民的意愿，人民就有权收回由政府代为行使的主权，修改政府，废除政府，建立新政府。
民主政治的基本思想认为：建立政府的目的仅在于更好地保障个人的自由和财产，政府实际上只是一个缔约组织，即一个根据约定组成的组织，因为民众有一些共同的需求，需要由一个全社会性质的强大组织来协调完成，所以才约定共同建立政府，政府只能依照民众的协约而建立，依照约定来运作，全体公民共同的、经过提炼而形成的意志就是约定的内容。
在民主社会，为了社会的稳定有序，人们互相约定共同遵守的规则，这就是社会的法律。这种法律是国民共同意志的精华，它的约束力建立在公民自己同意的基础之上，是社会大多数人的共同意志。在自由、民主、法制社会，人的行为仍然会受到约束，但这种约束是建立在人自己同意的基础之上，因此人仍然可以被认为是自由的，因为，遵守他人的约束是一种奴役，而遵守自我约束则是一种享受。
（二）人权的含意
人权，就是人作为自由人的权利，是人要过人的生活的神圣权利。一些人比其它人更强壮、更精明，并不等于这些人就可以以强权奴役他人，剥夺他人的人身自由权利。做人没有充分的人权，人的人格便不完整，人的尊严就受到扭曲。
侵犯人权就是侵犯人作为一个有生命的个体存在的权利，是对生命的践踏，它使得人不再是自己生命的主人。
社会之所以要实现民主，就是为了确保普通百姓的人身权利不受官僚贵族们的侵犯。将人权的内容具体文字化的基本用意就是在社会的民主程度还不够完善的状况下使百姓能有目的、有勇气地与强权专制统治作斗争，与随意侵犯人民利益的行为作斗争，约束统治者的霸权行为。因为我们的社会毕竟已不再是野蛮社会。
人权，是民主政治提倡的最主要概念，民主政治的基本作用就是保护人权：如果政府不能充分保障人权，政府就还不够民主；如果政府侵犯人权，政府就绝非是民主政府。
英国资产阶级大革命后于1689年通过的《人权法案》第一次明文规定了国王的某些行为属于非法，是英国大革命的重要成果，也是近代世界民主政治的起源。法国于1789年8月开始的大革命胜利后颁布的《人权和公民权宣言》，为法国民主政治的发展奠定了基础：随后，美国于1791年通过了宪法修正案《权利法案》。这些人权立法都是各国人民同专制独裁行为斗争的结果，是具有宪法性质的纲领性文件，它们明确规定了执政者都不得任意侵犯的公民的基本权利，基本内容包括：自由、财产、人身神圣不可侵犯，言论、信仰、著作出版自由权利不可侵犯，国家主权属于人民。
1948年12月10日，联合国大会通过了《世界人权宣言》，1966年12月16日联合国大会又通过《经济、社会、文化权利国际公约》，《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》，进一步详细阐明了人权的具体内容，使保护人权成为世界各国政府共同遵守的原则。人权在全世界范围内已得到广泛的认同和普遍的尊重。
对于人权问题，马克思主义者认为，人权是与财产私有制联系在一起的，它保证人身权利、财产不受侵犯，实际上是保护的资产阶级的权利不受侵犯，无产阶级已经一无所有，时刻处于受剥削，受压迫的地位，丧失了任何权利，只有以暴力剥夺富有者的财产，消灭私有制，才能消灭剥削和压迫。实现了财产的公有制，就能消除人的私心，消除人剥削人，人压迫人的现象，就不会再有对人权的侵犯现象，因此，社会主义社会无需提倡人权，保护人权是多此一举，人权是私有制社会的特殊产物。马克思说：“人权本身就是特权，而私有制就是垄断。。”恩格斯说：“真正的自由和真正的平等只有在共产主义制度下才能实现。”列宁认为：只有“把人类从各式各样的压迫和人剥削人的制度下解放出来，才能真正实现人人自由平等的社会。”
但是显然，公有制仅是一种经济制度，而并非是一种政治制度，公有制不能消除人的私心，公有制社会并不等于就是政治民主社会。而且，即便社会同时实现了政治民主，也并不等于就能完全消灭了对人权的侵犯现象，因为，民主政治同样不能消除人的私心。因此，人权并无制度、种族、国别之限，在全世界范围内，人权的标准都一样。
人权的内容主要有以下各项：
●人人生而平等，人人有追求幸福生活的权利。
●人人有思考的权利，有表达自己观念与意见的权利，有说话的权利。
●有根据自己的兴趣和利益自由组织、参加社团的权利。
●有和平集会、请愿、抗议、游行、示威的权利。
●有自由从事新闻出版发行工作的权利，有接受、传递任何信息、思想的自由，不论国界、也不论口头、书面、或其它形式。
●有自由信仰任何宗教与理论的权利。
●对政治有自决的权利，有直接或通过自由选举的代表参与公共事务的权利。
●有在一个国家内自由迁徙、选择住所的权利；有自由离开任何一个地方和国家的权利；有返回自己国家的权利。
●人人享有人身自由和安全，不受任意的逮捕或拘禁，除非按规定的法律程序；在未依法证实有罪之前，有权被推定无罪。
●有接受公正的、独立的、公开的司法审判的权利，如被认为有罪，有权要求与证人对质，有权上诉，有要求具有民意代表性的、普通公民组成的陪审团进行定罪的权利。
●对任何人不得加以酷刑或施以残忍的、不人道的或侮辱性的待遇或刑罚。
●个人财产有不受无理侵犯的权利。
● 个人生活、家庭、住宅、通信不受任意干涉，荣誉和名誉有不受无理攻击的权利。
●有权享有安全与卫生的工作条件。
●有权自由组织工会和罢工
●有权自由选择工作、辞退原先的工作。
●有权接受免费的初级教育，高等教育根据成绩向一切人平等开放。
不承认人权是专制统治者的共同特征。他们的统治之所以能够维护下去，实际上依赖的就是对人权的侵犯，以强权，采用不人道，甚至残酷的手段压制、镇压人民。同时，平民被他们灌输的愚民思想所愚弄，丧失了主权意识，不知何者称人权，不知到自己有哪些权利，不懂得自己能够运用这些权利，主动放弃了这些权利，成为驯服的、麻木不仁的绵羊，从而使统治者能够任意驱使、任意奴役、任意宰割。
公民是否拥有个人权利意识，是衡量一个社会的民众有无民主思想的标志，是一个社会能否实现民主，建立民主政治的先决条件。
民主政治的实质，就是依赖民众的意志进行治理。假如民众没有这种意识，放任国家的法律、政策由统治者任意制定，当他们侵犯自己的权益时，采取容忍默认的态度，那么，侵犯公民权益的行为就无法避免。民众的权益只能靠自己去争取与维护，决不能依赖于统治者是否仁慈，是否能主动为民众着想。
民主政治的目的就是使每个公民都能够自由平等地生活，能够根据自己的意志与能力自由地支配自己的生活，不受任何人无理粗暴的干涉。民主社会所指的平等，并不是经济上的平等，而是指机会上的平等，权利上的平等。任何人都能在平等的机会下参与竞争，不受出生时家庭条件的限制，不受社会地位与身份等级的限制，不受性别年龄种族的限制。能否取得成功，完全取决于个人的能力。
编辑：黄吉洲 校对：程筱筱 翻译：戈冰
Political Democracy—Chapter V: The Concept of Democratic Politics
Author: Zhu Zhengming
(1) The Origin of Sovereignty
Humans are born free; no one is born to be bound by others. Humans are born equal; no one is born inferior or born to be controlled by others. Every individual is their own master, and the people of every country and region are the masters of that country and region. The people are the source of state power. The core idea of democratic politics is that in the political affairs of a nation, the people act as the masters of their own destiny, and the will of the public determines everything. Government is established based on the consent of the people, relies on the wisdom of the people for governance, and acts solely to safeguard the interests of the people.
With human civilization having developed to where it is today, human society is no longer a primeval society; government power must never again be seized by a minority through force and imposed upon the people. If government officials impose power upon the public through violent means and force the public to serve government officials, the public likewise has the right to overthrow the government through violent means and set up a new government to serve themselves. This is because a government established by force is less a government than a gang of bandits. Although they may claim to represent the people, claim that they themselves are part of the people, and put a disguise of “people’s power” on their own clique, such hypocritical practices cannot conceal their bandit nature.
All political power of the state originates from the people, belongs to the people, and serves the people. Therefore, as long as the actions of the government deviate from the will of the people, the people have the right to reclaim the sovereignty delegated to the government, modify the government, abolish the government, and establish a new government.
The fundamental idea of democratic politics holds that the sole purpose of establishing a government is to better protect individual freedom and property. The government is essentially merely a compact-based organization—that is, an organization formed pursuant to an agreement. Because the public has certain common needs that require a powerful, all-society organization to coordinate and fulfill, they agree to jointly establish a government. A government can only be established in accordance with the compact of the public and operate according to that agreement; the collective and refined will of all citizens constitutes the content of this compact.
In a democratic society, for the sake of social stability and order, people mutually agree to abide by common rules; these are the laws of society. Such laws represent the essence of the citizens’ common will, and their binding force is established on the foundation of the citizens’ own consent, representing the common will of the majority of society. In a free, democratic, and rule-of-law society, human behavior is still subject to constraints, but because these constraints are established upon the foundation of self-consent, human beings can still be considered free. This is because obeying constraints imposed by others is slavery, whereas obeying self-imposed constraints is an enjoyment.
(2) The Meaning of Human Rights
Human rights are the rights of a person as a free individual; they are the sacred rights required for a human to live a fully human life. The fact that some people are stronger or shrewder than others does not mean they may use force to enslave others or deprive others of their personal liberty and rights. Without full human rights, a person’s personhood remains incomplete, and human dignity is distorted.
Infringing upon human rights is an infringement upon the right of a person to exist as a living individual; it is a trampling upon life that renders a person no longer the master of their own life.
The reason society needs to realize democracy is precisely to ensure that the personal rights of ordinary people are not infringed upon by bureaucratic elites. The primary intention behind codifying the content of human rights into explicit written text is to enable the common people—under circumstances where the level of democracy in society is not yet fully mature—to struggle purposefully and courageously against authoritarian and autocratic rule, struggle against acts that arbitrarily infringe upon the interests of the people, and restrain the hegemonic behavior of rulers. After all, our society is no longer a primeval society.
Human rights are the most primary concept advocated by democratic politics, and the fundamental function of democratic politics is to protect human rights: if a government cannot fully guarantee human rights, that government is not yet democratic enough; if a government infringes upon human rights, that government is absolutely not a democratic government.
The Bill of Rights, passed in 1689 following the British Bourgeois Revolution, stipulated for the first time in explicit terms that certain acts of the monarch were illegal; it was a major achievement of the British Revolution and also the origin of modern democratic politics worldwide. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, promulgated after the victory of the French Revolution commencing in August 1789, laid the foundation for the development of democratic politics in France; subsequently, the United States passed the constitutional amendments known as the Bill of Rights in 1791. These pieces of human rights legislation were all the fruits of various peoples’ struggles against autocratic and dictatorial practices, serving as programmatic documents of a constitutional nature. They explicitly stipulated fundamental citizen rights that no ruler may arbitrarily violate, with basic content encompassing: the inviolability of liberty, property, and person; the inviolable rights to freedom of speech, belief, and publication; and that national sovereignty belongs to the people.
On December 10, 1948, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and on December 16, 1966, the United Nations General Assembly further adopted the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which elaborated on the specific content of human rights in greater detail and turned the protection of human rights into a common principle to be observed by governments worldwide. Human rights have gained widespread consensus and universal respect globally.
Regarding the issue of human rights, Marxists contend that human rights are bound up with the system of private property; by guaranteeing that personal rights and property are free from infringement, it in fact protects bourgeois rights from infringement. The proletariat, possessing nothing and constantly in a position of being exploited and oppressed, has lost all rights; only by stripping the wealthy of their property through violence and abolishing private ownership can exploitation and oppression be eliminated. Once public ownership of property is achieved, human selfishness can be eliminated, along with the phenomena of human-on-human exploitation and oppression, and instances of human rights violations will no longer exist. Therefore, a socialist society has no need to advocate human rights, as protecting human rights is entirely superfluous; human rights are merely a special product of private-property societies. Marx stated: “Human rights themselves are privileges, and private ownership is a monopoly.” Engels stated: “True freedom and true equality can only be realized under the communist system.” Lenin maintained: Only by “liberating humanity from all forms of oppression and from the system of human-on-human exploitation can a society of freedom and equality for all truly be realized.”
However, it is obvious that public ownership is merely an economic system rather than a political system; public ownership cannot eliminate human selfishness, and a society of public ownership is not inherently equal to a politically democratic society. Moreover, even if a society simultaneously achieves political democracy, this does not mean that violations of human rights can be completely eradicated, because democratic politics likewise cannot eliminate human selfishness. Therefore, human rights are bounded by no system, race, or nationality; across the entire world, the standards of human rights remain identical.
The main contents of human rights primarily include the following items:
● All human beings are born equal and everyone has the right to pursue a happy life.
● Everyone has the right to think, the right to express their own concepts and opinions, and the right to speak.
● Everyone has the right to freely organize and join associations according to their own interests and benefits.
● Everyone has the right to peaceful assembly, petition, protest, march, and demonstration.
● Everyone has the right to freely engage in news, publishing, and distribution work, and the freedom to receive and impart any information and ideas, regardless of frontiers, and whether orally, in writing, or through any other medium.
● Everyone has the right to freely hold any religious beliefs and theoretical convictions.
● Everyone has the right to political self-determination, and the right to take part in public affairs directly or through freely chosen representatives.
● Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of a state; the right to freely leave any place or country; and the right to return to their own country.
● Everyone enjoys liberty and security of person, free from arbitrary arrest or detention except through established legal procedures; everyone has the right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty according to law.
● Everyone has the right to a fair, independent, and public judicial trial; if deemed guilty, everyone has the right to confront witnesses, the right to appeal, and the right to demand that conviction be determined by a representative jury composed of ordinary citizens.
● No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment.
● Every individual’s personal property has the right to be free from unreasonable infringement.
● Every individual’s personal life, family, home, and correspondence shall not be subjected to arbitrary interference, and their honor and reputation have the right to be free from unreasonable attack.
● Everyone has the right to enjoy safe and healthy working conditions.
● Everyone has the right to freely organize trade unions and to strike.
● Everyone has the right to freely choose employment and to resign from original employment.
● Everyone has the right to receive free primary education, and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.
Non-recognition of human rights is a common trait among autocratic rulers. The reason their rule can be maintained relies, in fact, on the infringement of human rights—suppressing and repressing the people through might and the use of inhumane or even cruel methods. At the same time, the common people are duped by the obscurantist ideology drummed into them, losing their consciousness of sovereignty, knowing not what human rights are, knowing not what rights they possess, not knowing how to exercise these rights, and voluntarily forfeiting these rights to become docile, numb sheep, thereby allowing rulers to arbitrarily command, enslave, and slaughter them.
Whether citizens possess a consciousness of personal rights serves as the hallmark of whether the public in a society possesses democratic ideas; it is the prerequisite for whether a society can realize democracy and establish democratic politics.
The essence of democratic politics is to govern by relying on the will of the public. If the public lacks this consciousness, allowing the laws and policies of the nation to be arbitrarily formulated by rulers, and adopting an attitude of tolerance and tacit consent when their own rights and interests are infringed upon, then acts infringing upon citizens’ rights and interests will be impossible to avoid. The rights and interests of the public can only be fought for and defended by themselves, and can never rely on whether the rulers are benevolent or whether they can proactively consider the public’s well-being.
The purpose of democratic politics is to enable every citizen to live freely and equally, to freely order their own life according to their own will and capabilities, and to be free from unreasonable and brutal interference by anyone. The equality referred to in a democratic society is not economic equality, but rather equality of opportunity and equality of rights. Anyone can compete under equal opportunities, unconstrained by family background at birth, unconstrained by social status and hierarchical rank, and unconstrained by gender, age, or race. Whether one can achieve success depends entirely on individual ability.
Editor: Huang Jizhou Proofreader: Cheng Xiaoxiao Translator: Ge Bing
